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                        PIERRE DE FERMAT (1601 - 1665)
                                       
   
   
   From `A Short Account of the History of Mathematics' (4th edition,
   1908) by W. W. Rouse Ball.
   
   While Descartes was laying the foundations of analytical geometry, the
   same subject was occupying the attention of another and not less
   distinguished Frenchman. This was Fermat. Pierre de Fermat, who was
   born near Montauban in 1601, and died at Castres on January 12, 1665,
   was the son of a leather-merchant; he was educated at home; in 1631 he
   obtained the post of councillor for the local parliament at Toulouse,
   and he discharged the duties of the office with scrupulous accuracy
   and fidelity. There, devoting most of his leisure to mathematics, he
   spent the remainder of his life - a life which, but for a somewhat
   acrimonious dispute with Descartes on the validity of certain analysis
   used by the latter, was unruffled by any event which calls for special
   notice. The dispute was chiefly due to the obscurity of Descartes, but
   the tact and courtesy of Fermat brought it to a friendly conclusion.
   Fermat was a good scholar, and amused himself by conjecturally
   restoring the work of Apollonius on plane loci.
   
   Except a few isolated papers, Fermat published nothing in his
   lifetime, and gave no systematic exposition of his methods. Some of
   the most striking of his results were found after his death on loose
   sheets of paper or written in the margins of works which he had read
   and annotated, and are unaccompanied by any proof. It is thus somewhat
   difficult to estimate the dates and originality of his work. He was
   constitutionally modest and retiring, and does not seem to have
   intended his papers to be published. It is probable that he revised
   his notes as occasion required, and that his published works represent
   the final form of his researches, and therefore cannot be dated much
   earlier than 1660. I shall consider separately (i) his investigations
   in the theory of numbers; (ii) his use in geometry of analysis and of
   infinitesimals; and (iii) his method for treating questions of
   probability.
   
   (i) The theory of numbers appears to have been the favourite study of
   Fermat. He prepared an edition of Diophantus, and the notes and
   comments thereon contain numerous theorems of considerable elegance.
   Most of the proofs of Fermat are lost, and it is possible that some of
   them were not rigorous - an induction by analogy and the intuition of
   genius sufficing to lead him to correct results. The following
   examples will illustrate these investigations.
   
   (a) If p be a prime and a be prime to p then a^(p-1) - 1   is
   divisible by p, that is, a^(p-1) - 1 \equiv 0   (mod p). A proof of
   this, first given by Euler, is well known. A more general theorem is
   that a^(\phi(n)) - 1 \equiv 0 (mod n)   (mod n), where a is prime to n
   and \phi(n)   is the number of integers less than n and prime to it.
   
   (b) An odd prime can be expressed as the difference of two square
   integers in one and only one way. Fermat's proof is as follows. Let n
   be the prime, and suppose it equal to x - y, that is, to (x + y)(x -
   y). Now, by hypothesis, the only integral factors of n are n and
   unity, hence x + y = n and x - y = 1. Solving these equations we get x
   = 1/2 (n + 1) and y = 1/2 (n - 1).
   
   (c) He gave a proof of the statement made by Diophantus that the sum
   of the squares of two integers cannot be of the form 4n - 1; and he
   added a corollary which I take to mean that it is impossible that the
   product of a square and a prime of the form 4n - 1 [even if multiplied
   by a number prime to the latter], can be either a square or the sum of
   two squares. For example, 44 is a multiple of 11 (which is of the form
   4  3 - 1) by 4, hence it cannot be expressed as the sum of two
   squares. He also stated that a number of the form a + b, where a is
   prime to b, cannot be divided by a prime of the form 4n - 1.
   
   (d) Every prime of the form 4n + 1 is expressible, and that in one way
   only, as the sum of two squares. This problem was first solved by
   Euler, who shewed that a number of the form 2^m (4n + 1) can be always
   expressed as the sum of two squares.
   
   (e) If a, b, c, be integers, such that a + b = c, then ab cannot be
   a square. Lagrange gave a solution of this.
   
   (f) The determination of a number x such that xn + 1 may be a square,
   where n is a given integer which is not a square. Lagrange gave a
   solution of this.
   
   (g) There is only one integral solution of the equation x + 2 = y;
   and there are only two integral solutions of the equation x + 4 = y.
   The required solutions are evidently for the first equation x = 5, and
   for the second equation x = 2 and x = 11. This question was issued as
   a challenge to the English mathematicians Wallis and Digby.
   
   (h) No integral values of x, y, z can be found to satisfy the equation
   x^n + y^n = z^n ; if n be an integer greater than 2. This proposition
   has acquired extraordinary celebrity from the fact that no general
   demonstration of it has been given, but there is no reason to doubt
   that it is true.
   
   Probably Fermat discovered its truth first for the case n = 3, and
   then for the case n = 4. His proof for the former of these cases is
   lost, but that for the latter is extant, and a similar proof for the
   case of n = 3 was given by Euler. These proofs depend on shewing that,
   if three integral values of x, y, z can be found which satisfy the
   equation, then it will be possible to find three other and smaller
   integers which also satisfy it: in this way, finally, we shew that the
   equation must be satisfied by three values which obviously do not
   satisfy it. Thus no integral solution is possible. It would seem that
   this method is inapplicable to any cases except those of n = 3 and n =
   4.
   
   Fermat's discovery of the general theorem was made later. A proof can
   be given on the assumption that a number can be resolved into the
   product of powers of primes in one and only one way. The assumption
   has been made by some writers; it is true of real numbers, but it is
   not necessarily true of every complex number. It is possible that
   Fermat made some erroneous supposition, but, on the whole, it seems
   more likely that he discovered a rigorous demonstration.
   
   In 1823 Legendre obtained a proof for the case of n = 5; in 1832
   Lejeune Dirichlet gave one for n = 14, and in 1840 Lam and Lebesgue
   gave proofs for n = 7. The proposition appears to be true universally,
   and in 1849 Kummer, by means of ideal primes, proved it to be so for
   all numbers except those (if any) which satisfy three conditions. It
   is not certain whether any number can be found to satisfy these
   conditions, but there is no number less than 100 which does so. The
   proof is complicated and difficult, and there can be no doubt is based
   on considerations unknown to Fermat. I may add that, to prove the
   truth of the proposition, when n is greater than 4 obviously it is
   sufficient to confine ourselves to cases when n is a prime, and the
   first step in Kummer's demonstration is to shew that one of the
   numbers x, y, z must be divisible by n.
   
   The following extracts, from a letter now in the university library at
   Leyden, will give an idea of Fermat's methods; the letter is undated,
   but it would appear that, at the time Fermat wrote it, he had proved
   the proposition (h) above only for the case when n = 3.
   
     Je ne m'en servis au commencement qe pour demontrer les propositions
     negatives, comme par exemple, qu'il n'y a aucu nombre moindre de
     l'unit qu'un multiple de 3 qui soit compos d'un quarr et du
     triple d'un autre quarr. Qu'il n'y a aucun triangle rectangle de
     nombres dont l'aire soit un nombre quarr. La preuve se fait par
     apagogeen   en cette manire. S'il y auoit aucun triangle rectangle
     en nombres entiers, qui eust son aire esgale  un quarr, il y
     auroit un autre triangle moindre que celuy la qui auroit la mesme
     propriet. S'il y en auoit un second moindre que le premier qui eust
     la mesme propriet il y en auroit par un pareil raisonnement un
     troisieme moindre que ce second qui auroit la mesme propriet et
     enfin un quatrieme, un cinquieme etc. a l'infini en descendant. Or
     est il qu'estant donn un nombre il n'y en a point infinis en
     descendant moindres que celuy la, j'entens parler tousjours des
     nombres entiers. D'ou on conclud qu'il est donc impossible qu'il y
     ait aucun triangle rectange dont l'aire soit quarr. Vide foliu post
     sequens....
     
     Je fus longtemps sans pouvour appliquer ma methode aux questions
     affirmatives, parce que le tour et le biais pour y venir est
     beaucoup plus malais que celuy dont je me sers aux negatives. De
     sorte que lors qu'il me falut demonstrer que tout nombre premier qui
     surpasse de l'unit un multiple de 4, est compos de deux quarrez je
     me treuvay en belle peine. Mais enfin une meditation diverses fois
     reitere me donna les lumieres qui me manquoient. Et les questions
     affirmatives passerent par ma methods a l'ayde de quelques nouveaux
     principes qu'il y fallust joindre par necessit. Ce progres de mon
     raisonnement en ces questions affirmatives estoit tel. Si un nombre
     premier pris a discretion qui surpasse de l'unit un multiple de 4
     n'est point compos de deux quarrez il y aura un nombre premier de
     mesme nature moindre que le donn; et ensuite un troisieme encore
     moindre, etc. en descendant a l'infini jusques a ce que vous
     arriviez au nombre 5, qui est le moindre de tous ceux de cette
     nature, lequel il s'en suivroit n'estre pas compos de deux quarrez,
     ce qu'il est pourtant d'ou on doit inferer par la deduction a
     l'impossible que tous ceux de cette nature sont par consequent
     composez de 2 quarrez.
     
     Il y a infinies questions de cette espece. Mais il y en a quelques
     autres que demandent de nouveaux principes pour y appliquer la
     descente, et la recherche en est quelques fois si mal aise, qu'on
     n'y peut venir qu'avec une peine extreme. Telle est la question
     suivante que Bachet sur Diophante avoe n'avoir jamais peu
     demonstrer, sur le suject de laquelle Mr. Descartes fait dans une de
     ses lettres la mesme declaration, jusques la qu'il confesse qu'il la
     juge si difficile, qu'il ne voit point de voye pour la resoudre.
     Tout nombre est quarr, ou compos de deux, de trois, ou de quatre
     quarrez. Je l'ay enfin range sous ma methode et je demonstre que si
     un nombre donn n'estoit point de cette nature il y en auroit un
     moindre que ne le seroit par non plus, puis un troisieme moindre que
     le second etc. a l'infini, d'ou l'on infere que tous les nombres
     sont de cette nature....
     
     J'ay ensuit consider questions que bien que negatives ne restent
     pas de recevoir tres-grande difficult, la methods pour y pratiquer
     la descente estant tout a fait diverse des precedentes comme il sera
     ais d'espouver. Telles sont les suivantes. Il n'y a aucun cube
     divisible en deux cubes. Il n'y a qu'un seul quarr en entiers que
     augment du binaire fasse un cube, ledit quarr est 25. Il n'y a que
     deux quarrez en entiers lesquels augments de 4 fassent cube,
     lesdits quarrez sont 4 et 121....
     
     Apres avoir couru toutes ces questions la plupart de diverses (sic)
     nature et de differente faon de demonstrer, j'ay pass a
     l'invention des regles generales pour resoudre les equations simples
     et doubles de Diophante. On propose par exemple 2 quarr. + 7957
     esgaux a un quarr (hoc est 2xx + 7967 \propto   quadr.) J'ay une
     regle generale pour resoudre cette equation si elle est possible, on
     decouvrir son impossibilit. Et ainsi en tous les cas et en tous
     nombres tant des quarrez que des unitez. On propose cette equation
     double 2x + 3 et 3x + 5 esgaux chaucon a un quarr. Bachet se
     glorifie en ses commentaires sur Diophante d'avoir trouv une regle
     en deux cas particuliers. Je me donne generale en toute sorte de
     cas. Et determine par regle si elle est possible ou non....
     
     Voila sommairement le conte de mes recherches sur le sujet des
     nombres. Je ne l'ay escrit que parce que j'apprehende que le loisir
     d'estendre et de mettre au long toutes ces demonstrations et ces
     methodes me manquera. En tout cas cette indication seruira aux
     sauants pour trouver d'eux mesmes ce que je n'estens point,
     principlement si Mr. de Carcaui et Frenicle leur font part de
     quelques demonstrations par la descente que je leur ay envoyees sur
     le suject de quelques propositions negatives. Et peut estre la
     posterit me scaure gr de luy avoir fait connoistre que les anciens
     n'ont pas tout sceu, et cette relation pourra passer dans l'esprit
     de ceux qui viendront apres moy pour traditio lampadis ad filios,
     comme parle le grand Chancelier d'Angleterre, suivant le sentiment
     et la devise duquel j'adjousteray, multi pertransibunt et augebitur
     scientia.
     
   
   
   (ii) I next proceed to mention Fermat's use in geometry of analysis
   and of infinitesimals. It would seem from his correspondence that he
   had thought out the principles of analytical geometry for himself
   before reading Descartes's Gomtrie, and had realised that from the
   equation, or, as he calls it, the ``specific property,'' of a curve
   all its properties could be deduced. His extant papers on geometry
   deal, however, mainly with the application of infinitesimals to the
   determination of the tangents to curves, to the quadrature of curves,
   and to questions of maxima and minima; probably these papers are a
   revision of his original manuscripts (which he destroyed), and were
   written about 1663, but there is no doubt that he was in possession of
   the general idea of his method for finding maxima and minima as early
   as 1628 or 1629.
   
   He obtained the subtangent to the ellipse, cycloid, cissoid, conchoid,
   and quadratrix by making the ordinates of the curve and a straight
   line the same for two points whose abscissae were x and x - e; but
   there is nothing to indicate that he was aware that the process was
   general, it is probable that he never separated it, so to speak, from
   the symbols of the particular problem he was considering. The first
   definite statement of the method was due to Barrow, and was published
   in 1669.
   
   Fermat also obtained the areas of parabolas and hyperbolas of any
   order, and determined the centres of mass of a few simple laminae and
   of a paraboloid of revolution. As an example of his method of solving
   these questions I will quote his solution of the problem to find the
   area between the parabola y = p x, the axis of x, and the line x =
   a. He says that, if the several ordinates of the points for which x
   is equal to a, a(1 - e), a(1 - e),... be drawn, then the area will be
   split into a number of little rectangles whose areas are respectively
   
     ae(pa^2)^(1/3), ae(1-e) ( pa^2(1-e)^2 )^(1/3),... .
     
   The sum of these is p^(1/3) a^(5/3) e / ( 1 - (1 - e)^(5/3) ) ; and by
   a subsidiary proposition (for he was not acquainted with the binomial
   theorem) he finds the limit of this, when e vanishes, to be (3/5)
   p^(1/3) a^(5/3) . The theorems last mentioned were published only
   after his death; and probably they were not written till after he had
   read the works of Cavalieri and Wallis.
   
   Kepler had remarked that the values of a function immediately adjacent
   to and on either side of a maximum (or minimum) value must be equal.
   Fermat applied this principle to a few examples. Thus, to find the
   maximum value of x(a - x), his method is essentially equivalent to
   taking a consecutive value of x, namely x - e where e is very small,
   and putting x(a - x) = (x - e)(a - x + e). Simplifying, and ultimately
   putting e = 0, we get x = 1/2. This value of x makes the given
   expression a maximum.
   
   (iii) Fermat must share with Pascal the honour of having founded the
   theory of probabilities. I have already mentioned the problem proposed
   to Pascal, and which he communicated to Fermat, and have there given
   Pascal's solution. Fermat's solution depends on the theory of
   combinations, and will be sufficiently illustrated by the following
   example, the substance of which is taken from a letter dated August
   24, 1654, which occurs in the correspondence with Pascal. Fermat
   discusses the case of two players, A and B, where A wants two points
   to win and B three points. Then the game will be certainly decided in
   the course of four trials. Take the letters a and b, and write down
   all the combinations that can be formed of four letters. These
   combinations are 16 in number, namely, aaaa, aaab, aaba, aabb; abaa,
   abab, abba, abbb; baaa, baab, baba, babb; bbaa, bbab, bbba, bbbb. Now
   every combination in which a occurs twice or oftener represents a case
   favourable to A, and every combination in which b occurs three times
   or oftener represents a case favourable to B. Thus, on counting them,
   it will be found that there are 11 cases favourable to A, and 5 cases
   favourable to B; and since these cases are all equally likely, A's
   chance of winning the game is to B's chance as 11 is to 5.
   
   The only other problem on this subject which, as far as I know,
   attracted the attention of Fermat was also proposed to him by Pascal,
   and was as follows. A person undertakes to throw a six with a die in
   eight throws; supposing him to have made three throws without success,
   what portion of the stake should he be allowed to take on condition of
   giving up his fourth throw? Fermat's reasoning is as follows. The
   chance of success is 1/6, so that he should be allowed to take 1/6 of
   the stake on condition of giving up his throw. But if we wish to
   estimate the value of the fourth throw before any throw is made, then
   the first throw is worth 1/6 of the stake; the second is worth 1/6 of
   what remains, that is 5/36 of the stake; the third throw is worth 1/6
   of what now remains, that is, 25/216 of the stake; the fourth throw is
   worth 1/6 of what now remains, that is, 125/1296 of the stake.
   
   Fermat does not seem to have carried the matter much further, but his
   correspondence with Pascal shows that his views on the fundamental
   principles of the subject were accurate: those of Pascal were not
   altogether correct.
   
   Fermat's reputation is quite unique in the history of science. The
   problems on numbers which he had proposed long defied all efforts to
   solve them, and many of them yielded only to the skill of Euler. One
   still remains unsolved. This extraordinary achievement has
   overshadowed his other work, but in fact it is all of the highest
   order of excellence, and we can only regret that he thought fit to
   write so little.
     _________________________________________________________________
   
   
   
   This page is included in a collection of mathematical biographies
   taken from A Short Account of the History of Mathematics by W. W.
   Rouse Ball (4th Edition, 1908).
   
   Transcribed by
   
   
    D.R. Wilkins
    (dwilkins@maths.tcd.ie)
    School of Mathematics
    Trinity College, Dublin